Microbiological transformation of steroids

Microbiological innovation of sex horm bingles1. Introduction1.1. Microbiological trans holdation of sex hormones. Steroids be small organic fertilizer molecules that speckic tot 18 synthesized in sex hormone hormone hormoneogenic tissues and act on target identifys to regulate a cascade of physiological functions 1. Examples of internal occurring steroid hormones include sterols, steroidal saponins, cardio energetic glycosides, cheekiness irates, corticosteroids and mammalian sex horm wholenesss 2. They argon based on the steran chassis which is composed of three six-carbon ring units and one five-carbon ring unit. The sound ar label direct A, B, C, and D beginning from the ut nearly left (see fig. 1). In naturally occurring steroids, all four rings are in the chair con governance 3 with rings B, C, and D in trans- flesh with respect to each another(prenominal). For rings A and B the position of the C-19 methyl chemical ag free radical attached to C-10 and t he hydrogen attached to C-5 determines the mental synthesis and their cis-/trans- configuration. Overall, neighbouring substituent are trans- if they are diaxial or diequatorial like in fig. 1a, and are cis- if they are axial-equatorial (fig. 1b).However, the 2 methyl groups attached to C-10 and C-13 are always axial in relative to rings B and D, with C-10 substituent being the conformational reference point 3. olibanumly, the 5- steroid skeleton (see fig. 1a) is in the trans-trans-tans- configuration, and hence is broadly planar. The knowledge of the stereochemistry of steroid molecules is noblely noteworthy in understanding its biotransformation reactions which is the basis of this register. Steroids re symbolize a class of natural outputs with diverse therapeutic properties. It has been detect that minor changes in the molecular structure of steroids bay window affect their biological activity 4,5. Hence numerous enquiry grow been conducted to make better the activity of existing steroid changes and to synthesize fable steroidal complicateds with pharmacological activity, and thus the nigh significant nation of these inquiry is the transformation of steroids using biocatalysts. Biotransformation could be defined as the modification of an organic compound into a rec everywhereable product by chemical reactions catalysed by enzymes originating from a biological system 6. It should be noted that the organic compound which is the substratum is not involved in the primary election or subsidiary metabolism of the biological system concerned, and thus distinguishes this function from biosynthesis. The biotransformation of steroids is one of the most important microbic accomplishes that are highly regio- and stereospecific, involving chemical modifications (e.g. oxidization, step-down, hydrolysis, i nearrisation, ep oxidisation, etc.) to the parent steroid which are catalysed by the microbial enzymes. In addition, the features which govern their regiospecificity differ from those supreme chemical specificity, and so it is possible to obtain biotransformation at centres that are chemically unre dynamic 6. For example, in the muse conducted by Peterson and Murray using Rhizopus arrhizus, it was ob workd that progesterone was hydroxylated at C-11 which is an ureactive site in this steroid molecule 7. Therefore, these characteristics alongside the fast growth and high metabolic rates of microorganisms give biotransformation reactions an advantage over conventional chemical fermentes as a tool in the employment of therapeutic agents (e.g. anti-inflammatory, diuretics, anabolic, contraceptive, anti-cancer, anti-androgenic, postgestational etc.) in the pharmaceutical industry. The ever growing research into the cultivation of microbial transformation of steroids hold led to newer technology in this area of science such as genetically modification of microorganisms to improve their steroid transforming capabilities, the immobilization of whole cells or isolated enzymes in a capable matrix for repetitive economic utilization of the enzymes, manipulation of culture media to improve product yields by the delectation of enhancers e.g. cyclodextrin, and the improvement of the solubility of substrates are water-insoluble (or sparingly soluble) in water 8. Furthermore, the advances in microbial steroid biotransformation come led to the discovery of new microbial reactions and novel metabolites which may be of interest within academia and clinical medicine.1.2. The tool of Hydroxylation The hydroxylation of a compound is a very important metabolic process, in humans this process is catalysed by cytochrome P450 enzymes and results in products with a higher polarity than the parent compound, and thus aiding its excretion from the body 1,3. The process of hydroxylation, involves the conversion of a carbon-hydrogen to a carbon-hydroxyl bond, and when catalysed by the enzyme hydroxylase, the reaction is more regio- and stereospecific in contrast to the conventional chemical process 8-12. As a result, microbial hydroxylation is rather employ for the synthesis of hydroxysteroid. fungal hydroxylation of steroids continues to be the focus of attention at contrastive levels of research and product development. In spite of its popularity this process is not fully understood because a couple of(prenominal) studies put one over been conducted on the hydroxylase enzyme receivable to the difficulty in isolating this enzyme 10,11. However, most studies have shown that the cytochrome P450 enzyme is as well responsible for steroid hydroxylation in filamentous fungus kingdom 9-11,13,22. Cytochrome P450 (CYP 450) enzyme is an constrict-haem system which carries out a wide be sick of biocatalytical transformation. These enzymes are excessively known as monotype Oases because they transfer one atom of molecular atomic number 8 to an organic substrate. The catalytic tool for this re action involves the binding of the substrate to the active site of the enzyme and and then the displacement of a water molecule (see fig.2). This is followed by a drop-off of the iron in the CYP 450-haem complex to its ferrous articulate (Iron II) by an electron transfer. The ferrous state then binds to molecular oxygen to form a ferrous-dioxy (Iron (III)-OOH) species. This species then loses a hydroxyl anion to form an iron (IV)-oxygen motif. This radical may withdraw a hydrogen atom from the substrate to generate a carbon radical and an iron (IV)-hydroxyl species. The carbon radical then accepts a hydroxyl radical from the iron (IV)-hydroxyl species to form a hydroxylated product and iron (III). A simple general reaction compare for this process is summarised below (where R represents the substrate and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotidePH is the electron transferring species).RH + NADPH + H+ + O2 ROH + NADP+ + H2O In other to fully understand the mechanism of fungal hydroxyla tion of steroids, the relationship between the structure of the CYP 450 hydroxylase enzyme and its regio- and stereoselective characteristic has to be defined. However, as mentioned earlier not much studies have been conducted on the structural features of this enzyme, and so active site presents was developed to grasp the concept of the regio- and stereoselective outcome of microbial hydroxylation reactions. The early seat, postulated by Brannon et al suggested the possibility for a steroidal substrate to be bound by a single steroid hydroxylase in more than one orientation due to two- sites binding, which could result in hydroxylation winning place at more than one position given the discriminate geometrical relationship between the active site of the enzyme and the carbon atom of the substrate undergoing the reaction 9,14. These four orientations are represented as normal, reverse, anatropous and reverse inverted (see fig. 3) and has been ascertained in the metabolic handli ng of 3-hydroxy-17a-oxa-D-homo-5-androstan-17-one by a filamentous fungus genus Aspergillus tamarii 15. The other model, Jones model takes into news report only the normal and reverse binding orientations 6. It requires the existence of three active centres on the steroid hydroxylase enzyme. These active centres have dual roles and could act some(prenominal) as a binding site or a hydroxylating site 16. However, these roles are mutually exclusive, and so hydroxylation would occur at the closest nuclear centre to the steroid. Hence the enzyme-substrate interaction proposed by Jones would suggest a angulate location with an approximate spatial correspondence to C-3, C-11 and C-16 atoms of the steroid nucleus 6 (fig. 4). This model could not explain the hydroxylation reactions by some microorganisms. Therefore another speculation was developed by McCrindle et al using both models above and victorious into account the 3- D nature of the steroid compound and hydroxylase enzyme 17. In this model, the steroid ring acts as a planar reference point (fig. 5). backrest site A favours oxygen atoms below the plane of the ring and hydroxylation is alpha. cover song site B is similar to A but can also hyroxylate alpha (axial or equatorial) or beta (equatorial) atoms. Whereas, binding site C binds preferentially to oxygen atoms above the plane of the steroid ring and hydroxylate with -beta orientation. Overall, this model tends to fit the hydroxylation purpose of most microorganisms. The hydroxylation outcome of some steroids can be predicted based on the oxygen functions or directing groups on the steroid skeleton. As a rule of thumb mono- oxygenated substrates are dihydroxylated and their transformation products are often in low yields 16. This is as result of the presence of one oxygen function on the steroid compound making it less(prenominal) polar and thus decreasing its solubility which hinders its permeation into the microbial cell. In addition to this, the p resence of only one oxygen function allows the steroid to bind to the enzyme at only one centre, thereby increasing its rotary motion and oscillation about the active site which makes it more likely to be dihydroxylated. Whereas, di- oxygenated substrates are monohydroxylated because the presence of two oxygen functions reduces the chance of multiple hydroxylations due to the reduction in the possible number of binding orientations 16. Furthermore, the presence of two binding oxygen groups increases the rate of reactivity of microbiological transformation as the increase substrate polarity improves solubility and thus permeation into the cell membrane of the microorganism is very likely. A wide intermixture of organisms have shown this pattern of hydroxylation with a wide range of substrates 15,16. Hydroxylated steroids possess useful pharmacological activities, for example, C-11 hydroxylation is regarded as essential for anti- inflammatory action, and 16- hydroxylated steroids h ave increased glucocorticoid activity 8,12. Hence the steroid industry exploits the use of 11-, 11-, 15- and 16- hydroxylation mainly for the fruit of adrenal cortex hormones and their analogues 8. A range of microorganisms have been observed to affect this type of hydroxylations. For example, 11- hydroxylation is performed using Rhizopus sp. Or Aspergillus sp., Cuvularia sp. or Cunninghamella sp. and Streptomyces sp. generates 11- and 16- hydroxylations respectively 8,18. Further research has shown other hydroxylations (e.g. 7-, 9- and 14- hydroxylations) of having the potential for industrial exploitation 18.1.3. The mechanism of Baeyer- Villiger Oxidation Baeyer- Villiger oxidization is the oxidative cleavage of a carbon-carbon bond next to a carbonyl, which converts ketones to esters and cyclic ketones to lactones 19,20. The mechanism of this chemical process was originally proposed by Criegee 19. It involves a two step process a nucleophillic labialise of a carbonyl by a pe roxo species resulting in the formation of a Criegee intermediate, which then undergoes rearrangement to the corresponding ester. Commonly used per window glasss or oxidants include m-chloroperoxybenzoic acid, hydrogen hydrogen bleach, peroxyacetic acid and trifluoroperoxy acetic acid. This chemical process is highly significant, because the products generated are compounds which are intermediates in the synthesis of natural products or bioactive compounds. However, the oxidants used in chemical Baeyer- Villiger oxidation (BVO) are expensive and hazardous and also the reaction generates a outsized amount of waste products 4. Hence biological (or enzymatic) BVO offers a greener approach for the output signal of chiral lactones. Biological Baeyer- Villiger oxidations are mediated by flavin- dependent monooxygenase enzymes i.e. Baeyer- Villiger monooxygenases (BVMOs) 19,21,22. As a result of the versatile nature of flavoproteins 19, BVMOs have been shown to perform a variety of cata lytic reactions including BVO of steroidal systems. The mechanism of microbial Baeyer- Villigers oxidation (fig. 6) is based on results obtained with cyclohexanone monooxygenase (CHMO) isolated from Acinetobacter calcoaceticus 19,22. This enzyme was shown to possess flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) as a prosthetic group and was also found to be dependent on NADPH and oxygen. The enzymatic process is initiated by the reduction of the tightly bound FAD by NADPH followed by rapid oxidation by molecular oxygen to produce flavin 4a- peroxide anion, which acts as the oxygenating species. Nucleophillic attack of the substrate carbonyl group by the flavin 4a- peroxide anion results in the Criegee intermediate. This intermediate then undergoes rearrangement to form the product lactone and 4a- hydroxy- flavin. The catalytic pass is terminated by elimination of water to form FAD and the exhalation of the product and co-factor. It should be noted that the mechanism for microbial BVO based on CHMO serves as a model for other BVMOs. However, there are some differences such as the co-factor NADPH can be replaced by NADH and the prosthetic group FAD can be replaced by FMN 19. Overall, there are no significant changes to the mechanism. Microbial Baeyer- Villigers oxidation is highly regio- and stereoselective 4,19-22 and as result it is unremarkably utilized for the biotransformation of steroidal compounds. It has also been shown in various studies, the cogency of microbial BVMOs to attack the different ring systems of the steroid skeleton. Glomerella fusarioides was observed to biotransform eburicoic acid through an attack on the ring- A system by way of BVO to form a lactone, followed by a ring- cleavage to produce carboxylic acid 19. In addition, 3-ketosteroids were observed to undergo Baeyer- Villigers oxidation with an isolated Baeyer- Villiger monooxygenase enzyme from Pseudomonas sp. assail the C-3 ketone group on ring- A 4. Ring- B lactone formation has also be en observed in the steroid system using tomato cell rest cultures to produce 24- epibassinolide 19. Ring- D lactonization is very common and has been demonstrated by rather a few fungal species such as Pencillium sp., Cylindrocarim sp., Mucor sp. and Aspergillus sp. These fungus kingdom were able to biotransform progesterone to testololactone by way of Baeyer- Villigers oxidation via the intermediate steroid androst-4-ene-3,17-dione 19. So furthest, ring- C lactonization has not been observed, although studies have been conducted to view this ring attack but none have proven its possibility 4. Overall, several research have been undertaken and are still been conducted to look the catalytic repertoire of Baeyer- Villiger monooxygenase enzymes, and these studies have shown the ability of this enzyme to catalyse the oxidation of 3- keto and 17- keto steroids with full control of the regiochemistry of the produced lactone thus allowing its act as an alternative to the conventional chemical process.1.4. The mechanism of alcohol oxidation Alcohol oxidation is an important reaction in organic chemistry. It leads to the production of aldehydes or carboxylic acids from primary alcohol and ketones from secondary alcohol. Tertiary alcohols are resistant to oxidation because it is impossible to remove a hydrogen ion or add an oxygen atom to the compound without breaking the C-C bond. The commonly used reagents for the oxidation of alcohol are Jones reagent, potassium permanganate and chromium- based reagents. However, the oxidation of primary alcohols to aldehydes creates a problem for the organic chemist because aldehydes are not constant when produced in the conventional chemical oxidation process thus the use of microbial cells is preferred to overcome this problem 22. The enzymes used in the oxidation of alcohol by microorganisms are alcohol dehydrogenases (ADH) which are dependent on the co-factors NAD+ or NADP+. The mechanism of this reaction consists of a s eries of equilibrium where the hydride from the alcohol substrate is transferred to NAD(P)+ in the ternary complex enzyme- NAD+- alcohol complex 22. In humans, this process is carried in the same way and is extremely important for several endogenous as well as drug metabolism. Therefore, microorganisms could serve as models for human metabolism using this process. An unparalleled level of regioselctivity of microbial oxidation of the alcoholic group in bile acids has been observed 23. Some fungal species are known to have the ability to oxidate the C-3 and C-17 hydroxyl groups of steroidal compounds. Aspergillus tamarii has been shown to possess the enzyme 3- hydroxy- steroid- dehydrogenases which catalyses the 3- hydroxyl group to a C-3 ketone 5. Oxidation of the 17- hydroxyl group has also been observed in a number of fungal species e.g. genus Penicillium sp., Aspergillus sp. and Mucor sp 24,25. In general, a number of microorganisms have shown the ability to oxidise the alcohol groups on a steroid compound to generate the ketone analogue, which could serve as an intermediate in the synthesis of lactones.1.5. The mechanism of carbonyl reduction The reverse reaction of oxidation is reduction. It involves the transfer of one hydride ion to the carbonyl group. In conventional chemical reaction, the catalysts commonly used are sodium borohydride (NaBH4) and atomic number 3 aluminium hydride (LiAlH4), aldehydes are easily reduced to primary alcohols using these catalysts. However, the high stereoselective reduction of ketones to chiral secondary alcohols is better performed with microbial enzymes 20,22. This process is catalyzed by alcohol dehydrogenases (ADHs), requiring the co-enzymes NADH or NADPH which transfers the hydride ion to the Si- or Re- face of the carbonyl group resulting in the formation of the corresponding (S)- or (R)- alcohol 22,25. Microbial reduction of ketones to secondary alcohols unremarkably proceeds in accordance with Prelogs rule to g ive secondary alcohols in the main (S)- enantiomer 25,26. However, only a very limited number of microbial enzyme (ADHs) is available to allow anti- Prelog activity and have been demonstrated in the fungus Myceliophthora thermophila 27. The ability of microorganisms to reduce the carbonyl groups on steroid compounds was reported in 1937 by Mamoli and Vercelloni who described the reduction of the 17- keto group in androst-4-ene-3,17-dione to testosterone by genus Saccharomyces cerevisiae 25. Since then this process has been demonstrated for a wide variety of substrates and microorganisms of different species. Carbonyl reduction often accompanies other reactions in steroid biotransformation, and thus acts as one of the processes in the production of hydroxysteroids.1.6. The microorganism Myceliophthora thermophila Thermophilic kingdom Fungi are among the few fungal species of eukaryotic organism that are able to belong at temperatures as high as 60 62oC 28. However, Cooney and Eme rsons definition of thermophilic fungi is fungi that have a growth temperature minimum at or above 20oC and a growth temperature maximum at or above 50oC 29. These fungi have a widespread distribution in both tropical and temperate regions, inhabiting various types of soil and places where decomposition of plant fabric and organic matter occur thus providing the warm, humid and aerobic milieu which are the basic conditions for their development 28,29. The enzymes of thermophilic fungi have been studied to explore their contribution in biotechnology, and these studies have identified a remarkable range of extracellular enzymes (e.g. proteases, lipases, -amylases, glucoamylases, cellulases, cellobiose dehydrogenases, xylanases, - D-glucuronidase, polygalacturonase, laccases, phytase and D-glucosyltransferase) and intracellular enzymes (e.g. trehalases, invertases, -glycosidases, lipoamide dehydrogenases, ATP sulfurylases and protein disulfide isomerases) 28. The majority of these en zymes are appreciably thermostable which have resulted in its application in sugar and paper industries 30. So far only two studies to date have been conducted to investigate the steroid biotransformation abilities of thermophilic fungi. The outset study used the thermophilic filamentous fungus, Rhizomucor tauricus and it was observed that all transformations were oxidative producing mono- and dihydroxylated products with allylic hydroxylation been the predominant route of attack on the steroid compounds 30. The second study was conducted using Myceliophthora thermophila 27 on which this present study is based. Myceliophthora thermophla is a thermophilic filamentous fungus classed as an ascomycete within the phyla of fungi 28. It has another name which is sometimes used, Sporotrichum (Chrysosporium) thermophile 28,29. However, M. thermophila is the sexual (telomorph) stage of the fungi, while Sporotrichum (Chrysosporium) thermophile is the asexual (anamorph) stage 28. Its main hab itat is in the soil and it is found in the following countries USA, Canada, India, UK, Japan and Australia 29. But this fungus can grow on simple media containing carbon, nitrogen and essential mineral salts such as Czapek- dox agar (CDA). The optimum growth temperature for M. thermophila is within the range 45 50oC 28. It grows rapidly on CDA at 45oC, producing colonies that vary in surface metric grain from cottony to granular and its colour changes from white to cinnamon brown 29. This fungus has also been observed to generate extracellular enzymes such as laccases, xylanases, cellulases and phytase which have been victimised for use in the food industry and as biocatalyst in biotechnological processes 27. This present study is a continuation of the research into steroid biotransformation by M. thermophila. Previously, a series of steroids (progesterone, testosterone acetate, 17-acetoxy-5-androstan-3-one, testosterone and androst-4-ene-3,17-dione) were incubated with this fung us, and a wide range of biocatalytical activity was observed with enzymatic attack at all four rings of the steroid nucleus and the C-17 side- chain. This fungus demonstrated an unusual ring- A opening following incubation of the steroid 17-acetoxy-5-androstan-3-one, and thus generating 4-hydroxy-3,4-seco-pregn-20-one-3-oic acid. It was also identified to be the first thermophilic fungus to cleave the side- chain of progesterone. M. thermophila also demonstrated reversible acetylation and oxidation of the 17- alcohol of testosterone 27 (fig. 8). Further investigation into the diverse biocatalytical activity of this organism has led to the incubation of six saturated steroids namely 17-hydroxy-5-androstan-3-one, 5-prgnane-3,20-dione, 3-hydroxy-5-androstan-17-one, 3-hydroxy-5-androstan-17-one, 5-androstan-3,6,17-trione and 5-androstan-3,17-dione with M. thermophila1.7. Hypothesis The proposed hypothesis from previous study is outlined as follows* Presumed lactonohydrolase activity ev ident from the isolation of an open lactone ring.* Enzymes responsible for the reduction of C3 ketone to a 3- alcohol and hydrogenation of the C-4-C-5 alkene are generate by progesterone.* Organisms ability for reverse metabolism, which is evident from the acetylation of testosterone to generate testosterone acetate and the reduction of the C-17 ketone of androst-4-ene-3,17-dione to produce testosterone which further undergoes acetylation.* Preference for stereochemistry of hydroxylation with attack at axial protons (6, 7, 11, 14). Therefore, the main aim of this study is to observe the solvent of saturated steroids on the biocatalytical activity of Myceliophthora thermophila CBS 117.65 and to prove the hypothesis from the previous study.